graphene oxide

Graphene oxide and bacteria interactions: what is known and what should we expect?

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ABSTRACT

Graphene oxide (GO) and graphene-based materials (GBMs) have gained over the last two decades considerable attention due to their intrinsic physicochemical properties and their applications. Besides, a lot of concern regarding the potential toxicity of GBMs has emerged. One of the aspects of concern is the interactions between GBMs and different environmental compartments, especially indigenous microbial and, in particular, bacterial communities. Recent research showed that GO and GBMs impacted bacterial pure culture or bacterial communities; therefore, these interactions have to be further studied to better understand and assess the fate of these materials in the environment. Here, we present our opinion and hypotheses related to possible degradation mechanisms of GO that can be used by environmental bacteria. This work is the first attempt to deduce and summarize plausible degradation pathways of GO, from structurally similar recalcitrant and toxic compounds, such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

OPINION/HYPOTHESIS

General properties of GBMs

Carbon-based nanomaterials possess exceptional specific mechanical properties such as high tensile strength and elasticity as well as electrical and thermal conductivity, which predetermine their broad use as additives for polymers and coatings in transparent conductive layers or as photovoltaic back-contact material, in nanomedicine as drug delivery systems or even in wastewater treatment for absorption of pharmaceuticals and other pollutants (1, 2). Graphene is a two-dimensional (2D) material made up of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. The more diverse graphene-based materials (GBMs) are groups of 2D carbon nanomaterials with up to 10 layers of graphene, which can contain other chemical elements. Within this family, graphene oxide (GO), which bears hydrophilic functional groups, that is, hydroxyls, epoxides on their basal planes and carbonyls, and carboxyls at the carbon sheet edges, is one of the most important graphene derivatives and a modified form of the naturally occurring mineral graphite. Furthermore, GO is the key intermediate for the production of various chemically modified and functionalized GBMs (1, 3).

Unfortunately, the advantages of these materials are also their major deficiency: GO and GBMs are potentially persistent in the environment, and as they are now being produced and used at an increasing rate, their potential biological transformations and degradation by microorganisms are questioned.

Health and environmental concerns of GO and GBMs

The physicochemical characteristics of these nanomaterials have been demonstrated to have a significant impact on their toxicity, that is, the lateral size and sharpness of the edges, the oxidation state of the material, and functionalization (4). In a recent review (5), extensive toxicological studies performed with GO and some GBMs on diverse organisms, for example, bacteria, planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial invertebrates, water fleas, brine shrimps, fishes, plants, and algae, were examined relative to endpoints such as EC50 and LC50.

Research on the environmental release of graphene materials and how these materials might enter ecosystems is needed and is ongoing. The quantities released, primarily through industrial processes and product use, will depend on the production and use of GBMs, as well as on the waste disposal practices, and finally on the ability to control and contain these materials during production and application. It is estimated that today’s global demand for graphene alone reaches the kt year−1 mark (6). Nevertheless, to date, no study reports the detection of these materials in environmental compartments or focuses on their persistence.

Bacterial communities and interface with GBMs

Because of their chemical structures, the transformation and degradation of GO and GBMs by microorganisms represent a real challenge.

Environmental bacteria have not yet been explored in depth for their capacity to interact with these emerging nanomaterials. In a similar way to the polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), GBMs could constitute a carbon and energy source extremely difficult to assimilate for bacteria. Nonetheless, based on decades of successful studies on PAH bacterial degradation, such as naphthalene, anthracene, pyrene, benzo[a]pyrene (Fig. 1), and many other compounds (7), by bacterial consortia and pure cultures of aerobes or anaerobes, we could reasonably consider that environmental bacteria should be able to interact, transform, and even degrade GO or GBMs.

Fig 1

Fig 1 Structural formula of (a) naphthalene, (b) anthracene, (c) pyrene, (d) benzo[a]pyrene, and (e) GO.

In 2015, the first hints about the influence of different GBMs and GO on natural environmental bacterial communities were published (8, 9). The use of different environmentally relevant concentrations of GBMs (from 1 ng to 1 mg·kg−1 dry soil) induced significant changes in bacterial soil community structures but did not influence the α-diversity of metagenomic libraries (10). This is a confirmation that the enrichment of specific bacterial soil consortia is induced by the addition of carbon-based 2D materials according to the type of graphene used. In addition, a partial convergence of metagenomic communities was observed in the presence of graphite and GO or graphite and other GBMs, which indicates that bacteria have diverse options to cope or interact with different GBMs (10). A recent review focused on the interactions between GBM and microbial communities originating from different environmental compartments, including soil (e.g., paddy, urban, forest, mountain, and grassland), surface waters (e.g., river, lake, and estuary), and sediments, which demonstrates increased interests in these research topics (2). These works provide a good outlook for further studies related to environmental bacteria from different compartments, including those from graphite mines, and their ability to interact or degrade GO and other GBMs, thus opening new frontiers in microbiology and white biotechnology.

Impact on aerobic bacteria

The predominant part of scientific literature related to interactions between GO and bacteria is based on toxicity studies of graphene, GO, or other GBMs toward a small number of human opportunistic bacterial pathogens, used in medical microbiology (9). Such test strains are Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and a few other well-known Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial model strains. However, as human opportunistic pathogens, these bacteria require a relatively narrow range of specific growth conditions. They are growing on rich and complex nutrient media, at an optimal temperature of 37°C and a pH between 6.8 and 7.5. Although useful for medical microbiology, these bacteria and other opportunistic or strictly pathogenic bacteria are not representative of the extensive natural diversity of bacterial life modes on Earth. Thus, for studies on bacterial-GO interactions and bacterial abilities to transform or degrade GBMs, bacteria from different environmental compartments are foremost appropriate. Meanwhile, several bacteria from different environments have been described to interact with GO or graphene materials. In 2018 Qu et al. isolated and identified from soil a novel strain of the bacterial genus Labrys sp. WJW that used GO for growth (11). Degradation of the materials was confirmed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) methods with aromatic intermediates identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. From genomic and proteomic analyses, it was assumed that several peroxidases, oxidoreductases, lyases, and hydrolases were involved in biodegradation. Besides, a new bacterial strain able to grow with naphthalene as the sole carbon source was isolated from the contaminated soil of a graphite mine (12). Further studies proved that it was able to degrade graphite, GO, and reduced GO. Interestingly, the bacteria had different effects on these materials with more defects in reduced GO, indicating that this material was more highly oxidized than graphite. However, bacteria were not further described, and metabolites and metabolism were not studied. An earlier study investigated the degradation of 14C-labeled multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)—another complex carbon nanomaterial (13). The authors identified a consortium of Burkholderia kururiensis, Delftia acidovorans, and Stenotrophomonas that degraded acid-treated MWCNTs in the presence of an external carbon source, under environmentally relevant conditions. Several polyaromatic compounds were identified as intermediate metabolites.

The chemolithoautotrophic microorganism Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans CFMI-1 was used for the oxidation of graphite to produce GO (14). This strain can mildly oxidize the natural pure graphite and also can bioerode the graphite and produce many few-layer nanosheets during the process of biooxidation. However, complete biodegradation was not possible with this microorganism. All these studies demonstrate the potential, especially of microorganisms isolated from (poly)aromatic-contaminated soils, to degrade complex graphene materials.

Some aerobic bacteria are also able to use GO and other GBMs as single carbon sources. They transform the carbon nanomaterials by extracellular reduction of hydrogen peroxide coupled to the respiration of Fe(III), thus producing hydroxyl free radicals that attack the structure of GO (15). Other plausible pathways of GO aerobic degradation include the formation of dihydrodiol intermediates that can be further subjected to ortho- or meta-cleavage of the attacked carbon ring(s), leading to the formation of structures similar to PAHs, with downstream intermediates such as protocatechuates and catechols (16–18). Protocatechuic acid can be degraded via three known pathways, all of which were described in aerobic bacteria: (i) meta-cleavage pathway, with initial enzyme protocatechuate 4,5-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.8) leading to the formation of 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconate-6-semialdehyde, which at the end is degraded to oxaloacetate and pyruvate before entering the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (16); (ii) ortho-cleavage or 3-oxoadipate pathway, with central enzyme protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.3), where the 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate is further degraded to 3-oxoadipate and the latter one to acetyl-CoA which enters TCA (17); and (iii) para-cleavage, with central enzyme protocatechuate 2,3-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.2) and formation of (2Z,4Z)-2-hydroxy-5-carboxymuconate-6-semialdehyde that further is degraded to (2Z)-2-hydroxypenta-2,4-dienoate, acetaldehyde, and pyruvate further entering TCA cycle (18). Initial and benzene ring opening reactions of all three pathways are shown in Fig. 2. In addition to these pathways, aerobic bacteria were reported to assimilate many different aromatic hydrocarbons, where the aromatic ring is cleaved.

Fig 2

Fig 2 Initial step reactions of protocatechuic acid cleavage by aerobes: (a) meta-cleavage, (b) ortho-cleavage, and (c) para-cleavage.

Aerobic bacteria attack the resonance-stabilized benzene ring oxidatively by introducing hydroxyl groups and by subsequent oxygenolytic benzene ring cleavage. These reactions are exergonic and require molecular oxygen as a co-substrate.

Impact on anaerobic bacteria

No studies on anaerobic interactions of bacteria with GO and GBMs or their degradation have been documented yet. Nevertheless, scientific information on anaerobic PAH degradation demonstrates plausible bacterial metabolic pathways that might apply to GO and GBMs. In absence of oxygen, numerous bacteria can degrade PAHs; however, anaerobic degradation processes are not as energy-efficient for the bacterial cells as compared to aerobic processes. Nonetheless, the environmental importance of slowly anaerobically processing recalcitrant pollutants in waters, sediments, or soils has to be seriously considered.

In contrast to the aerobes, the use of O2-dependent mono- and dioxygenases is irrelevant under anoxic conditions. Anaerobic bacteria use mainly reductive reactions for the dearomatization of the benzene nucleus, and these reactions are far more difficult to achieve, in contrast to oxidative processes. Therefore, anaerobic bacteria have evolved strategies to degrade aromatic compounds using varied metabolic pathways, some of which are still not yet fully understood. The overall strategy is to convert the aromatic substrates into a few key intermediates which are substrates for the reductases. When PAHs and aromatic compounds are anaerobically degraded, the central metabolites are thioesters of benzoic acid (benzoyl-CoA) or hydroxybenzoic acid. As alternative final electron acceptors, bacteria use sulfates, sulfites, thiosulfates, elemental sulfur, nitrate and nitrite ions, oxidized metal (e.g., Fe3+, Mn4+) or metalloid ions (e.g., arsenate or selenate), and bicarbonate ions or protons (7).

The most well-studied reactions are (i) the activation of toluene by the addition of co-substrate fumarate to form (R)-benzylsuccinate. The reaction is catalyzed by the O2-sensitive toluene-activating benzyl succinate synthase (EC 4.1.99.11), a glycyl radical enzyme; (ii) the O2-independent hydroxylation of ethylbenzene to give (S)-1-phenylethanol catalyzed by ethylbenzene dehydrogenase (EBDH) (EC 1.17.99.2). EBDH showed the ability to enantioselectively catalyze the same reaction to over 30 other ring-substituted mono- and bicyclic aromatic compounds to the respective alcohols with (S)-configuration (19); (iii) the complete oxidation of 4-alkylbenzoates to CO2, via specific 4-methylbenzoyl-CoA pathway in addition to the classical ATP-dependent benzoyl-CoA degradation pathway; (iv) decarboxylation of 4-hydroxyphenylacetate to p-cresol, further cleaved to form 3-hydroxypimelyl-CoA (19); and (v) degradation of benzene and naphthalene, via carboxylation to benzoate and 2-naphthoate, which are then decarboxylated by carboxylase-like putative proteins (20). These activation and reduction reactions lead to the formation of central intermediate benzoyl-CoA (19).

In anaerobes, diverse metabolic pathways are used to cleave the benzoyl-CoA and its further assimilation in bacterial cells (19). First, in the central benzoyl-CoA pathway, the dearomatization of benzoyl-CoA proceeds via an ATP-dependent activation to form cyclohex-1,5-diene-1-carbonyl-CoA, which is downstream hydroxylated to 3-hydroxypimeloyl-CoA. For this pathway, one characteristic is the presence of an ATP-dependent, oxygen-sensitive benzoyl-CoA reductase (BCR) Class I enzyme (EC 1.3.7.8.) (21). This pathway is predominantly abundant among facultative anaerobes. Second, the obligate anaerobes, in contrast, activate benzoyl-CoA in an ATP-independent reaction. In this pathway, the intermediates are further β-oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2. The characteristic enzyme for this pathway is the bifurcating BCR Class II enzyme (EC 1.3.1 .M30), highly oxygen-sensitive, which is not present among aerobes (19, 22). The reaction mechanism of the BCR Class II enzyme is still not completely decrypted. The third metabolic pathway involves a new type of arylcarboxyl-CoA reductases (ATP-independent and oxygen-insensitive), recently discovered in sulfate-reducing naphthalene degraders and is only known for anaerobic PAH degradation (23).

Bioflotation: “green” separation of particles

Although complete microbial degradation of graphene nanomaterials is one way to avoid the release of hazardous compounds into the environment, recovery and reuse of these compounds could be a better and more sustainable alternative. Microorganisms and metabolites have been successfully applied in bioleaching of metals. More recently and according to recent fundamental studies, bioflotation and bioflocculation emerging technologies have proved to be effective in the beneficiation of these minerals. Indeed, several bacteria, metabolites, and biomolecules such as excreted proteins and polysaccharides are able to significantly alter the mineral surface chemical properties. Therefore, the bacterial cells and their metabolites can be used to selectively separate minerals by flotation processes (24).

Typically, flotation is a simple separation technology originally applied in the mineral industry to extract valuable minerals from ores. However, compared to classical processes which require toxic chemicals, bioreagents can be a promising green alternative.

Qu et al. monitored the increased formation of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) when the strain Labrys sp. WJW was incubated with GO materials (11). EPS are well known to mediate the attachment of bacterial cells to surfaces and biofilm formation (25). Their binding affinities to varied surfaces make them interesting for their application in flotation processes. Consequently, several studies investigated the effect of EPS as a bioreagent in mineral separation. Cells, EPS, or other compounds that interact with the surface of GO particles could be attractive “green” flotation agents for GO particle separation and recycling processes in the future.

Conclusion

In recent years, the carbon allotrope graphene has emerged as one of the most promising materials. While in some studies, it was reported that graphene can persist in the environment and potentially disrupt microbial communities, others suggest that it may be slowly biodegradable. Thanks to a variety of catalytic reactions that are already known, under study, or as yet unknown that are involved in the degradation of other recalcitrant or toxic substances, such as PAHs and other aromatic compounds, we suggest that GO can be subjected to biodegradation.

In any case, the interaction of graphene with the environment and its bacterial degradation under various conditions remain largely unexplored, and further investigations are urgently needed.

5G REMOTE KILL VECTOR: Science paper reveals cell phone signals can activate the release of biological PAYLOADS from graphene oxide injected into the body

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A science paper published in MaterialsToday Chemistry reveals that cell phone signals can be used to release biological or chemical payloads from graphene oxide that’s introduced into the human body. The paper, published in September of 2022, is entitled, “Remotely controlled electro-responsive on-demand nanotherapy based on amine-modified graphene oxide for synergistic dual drug delivery.”

The study abstract reveals how a cell phone can emit signals to activate a low voltage current that interacts with Graphene Oxide (GO) molecules, causing efficient delivery of drug payloads:

This study aims to determine low-voltage-controlled dual drug (aspirin and doxorubicin) release from GO surface. Here, we have demonstrated how to control the drug release rate remotely with a handy mobile phone, with zero passive release at idle time.

Because of its extremely high surface area and complex structure composition, graphene oxide turns out to be the perfect molecule for delivery of biological or drug payloads inside the body. From the study:

These advantages make GO an extremely potential nanocomposite material as a drug carrier in the field of biomedicine and biotechnology, while being combined with a polymer or inorganic matrix.

Importantly, the presence of a specific frequency of a low voltage current is all that’s necessary to cause graphene oxide to release its payload.

5G cell tower signals create micro currents inside the body

We already know that 5G signals can generate electrical currents inside the human body, even from a significant distance. An important article authored by Dr. Joseph Mercola and published in Childrens Health Defense reveals that 5G cell signal radiation results in measurable biological and chemical changes inside the human body. From his article:

  • 5G relies primarily on the bandwidth of the millimeter wave, known to cause a painful burning sensation. It’s also been linked to eye and heart problems, suppressed immune function, genetic damage and fertility problems.
  • The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) admits no 5G safety studies have been conducted or funded by the agency or telecom industry, and that none are planned.
  • The FCC has been captured by the telecom industry, which in turn has perfected the disinformation strategies employed by the tobacco industry before it.
  • Persistent exposures to microwave frequencies like those from cellphones can cause mitochondrial dysfunction and nuclear DNA damage from free radicals produced from peroxynitrite.
  • Excessive exposures to cellphones and Wi-Fi networks have been linked to chronic diseases such as cardiac arrhythmias, anxiety, depression, autism, Alzheimer’s and infertility.

The Cellular Phone Task Force website lists numerous warnings from governments and agencies around the world who have sounded the alarm on cell phone radiation and its harmful effects on human biology.

Radiofrequency microwave radiation causes voltage changes inside the body’s cells, altering calcium channels

Additionally, compelling research led by Martin Pall, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of biochemistry and basic medical sciences at Washington State University, reveals that microwave radiation from mobile devices and wireless routers causes voltage changes inside the body’s cells, activating what are called “Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels” (VGCCs), which are located in the outer membrane of your cells. It is this membrane that determines what passes into and out of the cell.

See the full study by Martin Pall, PhD., entitled: Electromagnetic fields act via activation of voltage-gated calcium channels to produce beneficial or adverse effects. That study explains:

Twenty-three studies have shown that voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) produce these and other EMF effects… Furthermore, the voltage-gated properties of these channels may provide biophysically plausible mechanisms for EMF biological effects.

From Dr. Mercola’s article linked above: (emphasis added)

According to Pall’s research radiofrequency microwave radiation such as that from your cellphone and wireless router activates the voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) located in the outer membrane of your cells.

According to Pall, VGCCs are 7.2 million times more sensitive to microwave radiation than the charged particles inside and outside our cells, which means the safety standards for this exposure are off by a factor of 7.2 million.

Low-frequency microwave radiation opens your VGCCs, thereby allowing an abnormal influx of calcium ions into the cell, which in turn activates nitric oxide and superoxide which react nearly instantaneously to form peroxynitrite that then causes carbonate free radicals, which are one of the most damaging reactive nitrogen species known and thought to be a root cause for many of today’s chronic diseases.

This means that cell phone radiation (and 5G cell tower radiation) does, indeed, induce voltage changes in the human body, and that these voltage changes have very real biochemical effects, some of which may be dangerous to human health (such as the formation of peroxynitrite molecules).

Fighting these potent free radicals can be achieved in part with nutritional approaches, such as through the use of superoxide dismutase enzyme (SOD), which is the foundational nutrient in the Health Ranger Store’s 5G Defense powders. Notably, SOD (which is usually derived from melon fruit) does not block cell tower radiation itself, but it helps the body respond to cellular stresses such as the formation of peroxynitrite molecules.

In related news reported by Reuters, French regulators have issued a warning to Apple to stop selling iPhone 12 phones due to the presence of excessive radiation produced by the devices. Apple’s smartphone exceeds the allowable legal limit of radiation. This phone has been sold since 2020.

5G signals may be used to cause Graphene Oxide to release payloads inside the human body

Connecting the dots on all this, 5G signals can be used to generate low voltage inside the human body, causing Graphene Oxide molecules to release predetermined payloads inside the body. Via the published paper linked above:

Upon application of external stimuli, many materials are able to release drugs. However, most of them need sophisticated instruments except electrical stimulation. Electro-stimulated drug delivery has attracted attention due to the low expense, painless, and portability of the control equipment, making it manageable for customized applications. In this study, we used NGO as an electro-sensitive material to deliver drugs in a controllable manner.

“This is the first time we have used ASP and DOX as a model drug which can be delivered simultaneously by external voltage,” the paper states. The conclusion of the paper adds: (emphasis added)

In conclusion, we have shown here that NGO can be used as a dual drug delivery agent, and the release of drugs can be controlled by an external voltage. To exploit the synergistic effect of ASP and DOX, we modified NGO and attached two drugs to it. Our labmade remote-controlled device efficiently released the anticancer drug. The releasing process can easily be switched on and off with a mobile phone by changing the bias voltage.

Graphene Oxide can carry biological or chemical weapons as payloads

In the scientific paper quoted above, the payload was aspirin plus a common cancer drug. However, payloads can be almost anything of sufficiently small size, including both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules. From the study, “We have also demonstrated how hydrophilic (ASP) and hydrophobic drugs (DOX) can be delivered by using a single delivery platform.”

This means that potent chemical weapons — theoretically including nerve agents that are fatal at nanograms of exposure — could be loaded into graphene oxide molecules which are surreptitiously delivered into the body via aggressively propagandized medical interventions such as fake vaccines or covid swabs. Theoretically, such weapons might be able to be delivered to the population via food vectors as well. Once in the body, a small amount of payload leakage may generate some level of nerve damage among inoculated victims, but the real payload delivery won’t happen until a proper 5G signal is broadcast across the inoculated population, using the “release frequency” that generates the required voltage to unleash the payload.

In other words, a 5G broadcast signal at the appropriate frequency could instantly cause graphene oxide molecules to release the payloads into the bodies of those who were previously inoculated with those payloads. This would happen simultaneously, across the entire population that is within range of the broadcast frequencies which generate the necessary voltage in the body.

If the payload were a nerve agent, the real world effect would be the sudden dropping dead of large portions of populations across cities where 5G broadcast are able to saturate them. If payloads were virus-like nanoparticles, payload delivery could cause a large portion of the population to suddenly appear to be “infected” with a pandemic virus that is spreading at unimaginable speed.

This technology, in other words, could be used as a “kill switch” to terminate whatever portion of the population was previously inoculated with payload-carrying GO.

“Black ink” printed on pharmaceutical capsules shown to be magnetic and may contain graphene oxide

Some additional information came to my attention during the writing of this article. The black ink printed on the side of pharmaceutical capsules actually consists of mysterious black specks which are magnetic. A contact sent me a video, represented in the following screen shot, showing pharmaceutical capsules soaked in water for several hours, after which the black “ink” from the capsules turned into black specs that displayed startling magnetic properties. In this still photo, you can see the black specs gather at the common magnet held against the glass:

As this article reveals in LiveScience.com, stunning new research finds that graphene can be made magnetic by assembling layers in a specific rotational orientation. This gives rise to magnetism, even though the underlying atomic elements are nothing but carbon. From the article:

The magnetic field isn’t created by the usual spin of electrons within the individual graphene layers, but instead arises from the collective swirling of electrons in all of the three-layers of the stacked graphene structure, researchers reported Oct. 12 in the journal Nature Physics.

Is graphene being used in the “ink” that’s printed on the side of prescription medications? We don’t know for certain, but the fact that this ink is clearly magnetic is alarming.

Graphene oxide can also transmit gigahertz signals to nearby receivers

Additionally, under certain exotic applications of graphic oxide (GO) materials, those whose bodies are activated by cell tower broadcast could themselves function as electromagnetic “repeaters” due to the ability of GO to function as transmitters.

This capability is well documented in a study entitled, “Radio-frequency characteristics of graphene oxide,” published in Applied Physics Letters in 2010. (https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3506468) That study explains: (emphasis added)

We confirm graphene oxide, a two-dimensional carbon structure at the nanoscale level can be a strong candidate for high-efficient interconnector

in radio-frequency range. In this paper, we investigate high frequency characteristics of graphene oxide in range of 0.5–40 GHz. Radiofrequency transmission properties were extracted as S-parameters to determine the intrinsic ac transmission of graphene sheets, such as the impedance variation dependence on frequency. The impedance and resistance of graphene sheets drastically decrease as frequency increases. This result confirms graphene oxide has high potential for transmitting signals at gigahertz ranges.

Graphene oxide materials, in other words, can both carry payloads which are delivered via remote cell phone signaling, as well as transmit signals to other nearby receivers.

This could theoretically be used to start a “chain reaction” of 5G cell tower signals being re-broadcast from one person to another. In theory, this could extend a “kill switch” signal broadcast far beyond the initial range of 5G cell towers themselves.

From the conclusion of that published paper:

…[W]e expect that GO could be used for transmission lines in next-stage electronics and could be very strong candidate for nanocarbon electronics.

Conclusions

  1. Graphene oxide can carry chemical or biological payloads.
  2. Graphene oxide carrying payloads can be introduced into the body through vaccines or swabs.
  3. The release of those payloads can be controlled by external cell tower signals which cause specific voltage changes in human cells.
  4. Some voltage changes are already known to occur with exposure to cell tower radiation, especially with 5G.
  5. Graphene oxide payloads can include “kill switch” payloads such as nerve agents or infectious agents.
  6. The 5G tower system can therefore function as a chemical weapons payload release infrastructure system to achieve a “mass kill” of populations which were previously inoculated with payload-carrying GO.
  7. Covid vaccines — which are now widely known to have had nothing to do with halting any pandemic (since even the White House and CDC both admit they do not halt transmission or infections) — could have theoretically been used to inoculate people with graphene oxide payloads which have not yet been activated.

Thus, it is plausible — but not proven — that vaccines + 5G cell towers could be exploited as a depopulation weapon system to achieve near-simultaneous mass extermination of a large percentage of the human population, simply by activating GO payload release with a specific broadcast energy intensity and frequency.

Given that the western governments of the world are clearly attempting to exterminate their own populations right now, this conclusion should be concerning to all those who wish to survive the global depopulation agenda.

Graphene oxide’s secret properties revealed at atomic level

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Since its discovery, graphene has captured the attention of scientists and engineers for its many extraordinary properties. But graphene oxide—an oxidized derivative of graphene—largely has been viewed as graphene’s inferior cousin.

“Graphene is so perfect,” said Northwestern Engineering’s Jiaxing Huang. “And is more defective, so it’s like the weaker, less exciting version of graphene.”

Now a Northwestern University team has found that graphene oxide’s seemingly undesirable defects surprisingly give rise to exciting mechanical properties. Led by Horacio Espinosa, the James N. and Nancy J. Farley Professor in Manufacturing and Entrepreneurship at Northwestern’s McCormick School of Engineering, the researchers used a unique experimentation and modeling approach to become the first to examine the mechanics of this previously ignored material at the atomic level. What they discovered could potentially unlock the secret to successfully scaling up graphene oxide, an area that has been limited because its building blocks have not been well understood.

“Our team discovered that graphene oxide exhibits remarkable plastic deformation before breaking,” said Espinosa. “Graphene is very strong, but it can break suddenly. We found that graphene oxide, however, will deform first before eventually breaking.”

Huang compares the difference in the materials’ properties to common objects. “Ceramic is strong,” he says, “but if you break it, it will shatter. Now if a plastic cup is squeezed, it will bend before it snaps.”

Supported by the Army Research Office and National Science Foundation’s Designing Materials to Revolutionize and Engineer Our Future program, the research is described in the August 20 issue of Nature Communications. In addition to Espinosa, Northwestern Engineering’s Jiaxing Huang, associate professor of materials science and engineering, and SonBinh T. Nguyen, professor of chemistry in the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, are co-principal investigators on the project. Postdoctoral fellow Xiaoding Wei and graduate students Rafael A. Soler-Crespo and Lily Mao are co-first authors of the paper.

The team found that graphene oxide’s plasticity is due to an unusual mechanochemical reaction. Graphene oxide comprises two and one oxygen atom, a formation known as an epoxide. This can be imagined as a triangle with two carbon atoms at the base and an at the top. When an epoxide’s bonds are chemically broken, the carbon-oxygen bonds break, leaving the carbon-carbon bond in tact. The research team, however, found that when a mechanical force was applied to graphene oxide, the broke first, leaving the carbon-oxygen bonds in place.

“We uncovered this surprise on the atomic scale,” Nguyen said. “This is completely different than what occurs in other materials and a very unusual property for the graphene oxide sheet.”

Knowing how graphene oxide functions at the atomic scale could allow researchers to tune the material’s properties. The Northwestern team is now extending its research to understanding the mechanical properties of graphene oxide-polymer interfaces, which is critical to scaling up the material.

“Our studies imply that the answers to scaling up graphene may lie, in part, to the chemistry at the ,” Espinosa said. “With more information obtained at different length scales as well as advances in synthesis methods, we will eventually piece the puzzle together.”

Graphene paints a corrosion-free future

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The surface of graphene, a one atom thick sheet of carbon, can be randomly decorated with oxygen to create graphene oxide; a form of graphene that could have a significant impact on the chemical, pharmaceutical and electronic industries. Applied as paint, it could provide an ultra-strong, non-corrosive coating for a wide range of industrial applications.
graphene

Graphene oxide solutions can be used to paint various surfaces ranging from glass to metals to even conventional bricks. After a simple chemical treatment, the resulting coatings behave like graphite in terms of chemical and thermal stability but become mechanically nearly as tough as graphene, the strongest material known to man.

The team led by Dr Rahul Nair and Nobel laureate Sir Andre Geim demonstrated previously that multilayer films made from are vacuum tight under dry conditions but, if expose to water or its vapour, act as molecular sieves allowing passage of below a certain size. Those findings could have huge implications for water purification.

This contrasting property is due to the structure of graphene oxide films that consist of millions of small flakes stacked randomly on top of each other but leave nano-sized capillaries between them. Water molecules like to be inside these nanocapillaries and can drag small atoms and molecules along.

In an article published in Nature Communications this week, the University of Manchester team shows that it is possible to tightly close those nanocapillaries using simple chemical treatments, which makes graphene films even stronger mechanically as well as completely impermeable to everything: gases, liquids or strong chemicals. For example, the researchers demonstrate that glassware or copper plates covered with graphene paint can be used as containers for strongly corrosive acids.

The exceptional barrier properties of graphene paint have already attracted interest from many companies who now collaborate with The University of Manchester on development of new protective and anticorrosion coatings.

Dr Nair said “Graphene paint has a good chance to become a truly revolutionary product for industries that deal with any kind of protection either from air, weather elements or corrosive chemicals. Those include, for example, medical, electronics and nuclear industry or even shipbuilding, to name but the few.”

Dr Yang Su, the first author in this work added: “Graphene paint can be applied to practically any material, independently of whether it’s plastic, metal or even sand. For example, plastic films coated with graphene could be of interest for medical packaging to improve shelf life because they are less permeable to air and water vapour than conventional coatings. In addition, thin layers of paint are optically transparent.”

Read more at: http://phys.org/news/2014-09-graphene-corrosion-free-future.html#jCp

Tough foam from tiny sheets

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Tough, ultralight foam of atom-thick sheets can be made to any size and shape through a chemical process invented at Rice University.

In microscopic images, the foam dubbed “GO-0.5BN” looks like a nanoscale building, with floors and walls that reinforce each other. The structure consists of a pair of two-dimensional materials: floors and walls of that self-assemble with the assistance of hexagonal boron nitride platelets.

The researchers say the foam could find use in structural components, as supercapacitor and battery electrodes and for gas absorption, among other applications.

The research by an international collaboration led by the Rice lab of materials scientist Pulickel Ajayan is detailed today in the online journal Nature Communications.

Graphene oxide (GO) is a variant of graphene, the hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms known for its superior strength and conductivity. It can be produced in bulk by chemically exfoliating oxidized graphite. Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) looks like GO, with the same “chicken wire” array of atoms. An insulator known as “white graphene,” h-BN has an ability to form seamless interfaces with graphene that has led to the creation of interesting hybrid materials at Rice and elsewhere.

Soumya Vinod, the Rice graduate student who co-led the project, said she and her colleagues expected adding h-BN to graphene oxide would toughen the resulting foam, but “the ordered, layered structure was not entirely expected.”

“Once we observed the structure, we knew it was very different from the other nanoengineered foams reported and could lead to very interesting properties,” she said.

Those properties include the ability to handle a great deal of strain and still bounce back to its native form. This is remarkable, Vinod said, for a material so light that a stray breath in the lab would send the small samples flying.

Both components of the new material start as cheap, plentiful powders. Atom-thick layers of graphene oxide and h-BN are chemically exfoliated from the powders, mixed in the proper proportion with a few chemical catalysts and freeze-dried. The resulting foam takes the shape of the container and is 400 times less dense than graphite.

For testing, Vinod and her colleagues made foams of pure graphene oxide and foams with h-BN at 25 and 50 percent by weight. The 50 percent h-BN version was found to be the most mechanically stable, though she expects to optimize the mix—and increase the size—with further experimentation. “We found that more concentration of h-BN leads to low structural integrity, but we’ve yet to optimize the right amount,” she said.

A close-up look at the revealed the floors as self-assembled sheets of overlapping GO flakes. Cross-linking platelets of h-BN were uniformly distributed throughout the material and held the sheets together.

Samples the size of a pencil’s eraser were compressed with one or two pennies to see how well they would bounce back.

The h-BN platelets connect to oxide and absorb stress from compression and stretching, preventing the GO floors from crumbling and significantly enhancing the material’s thermal stability, Vinod said. The platelets also prevented the propagation of cracks that destroyed samples with less or no h-BN.