Day: 11/06/2016

Scientists have found a bizarre similarity between human cells and neutron stars.

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If you were to compare yourself to a neutron star, you probably wouldn’t find very many things in common. After all, neutron stars – celestial bodies with super strong magnetic fields – are made from collapsed star cores, lie light-years away from Earth, and don’t even watch Netflix.

But, according to new research, we share at least one similarity: the geometry of the matter that makes us.

Researchers have found that the ‘crust’ (or outer layers) of a neutron star has the same shape as our cellular membranes. This could mean that, despite being fundamentally different, both humans and neutron stars are constrained by the same geometry.

“Seeing very similar shapes in such strikingly different systems suggests that the energy of a system may depend on its shape in a simple and universal way,” said one of the researchers, astrophysicist Charles Horowitz, from Indiana University, Bloomington.

To understand this finding, we need to quickly dive into the weird world of nuclear matter, which researchers call ‘nuclear pasta’ because it looks a lot like spaghetti and lasagne. See for yourself:

NuclearPasta

D. K. Berry et al.

This nuclear pasta forms in the dense crust of a neutron star thanks to long-range repulsive forces competing with something called the strong force, which is the force that binds quarks together.

In other words, two powerful forces are working against one another, forcing the matter – which consists of various particles – to structure itself in a scaffold-like (pasta) way.

As one of the team, Greg Huber, a biological physicist from the University of California, Santa Barbara, explains:

“When you have a dense collection of protons and neutrons like you do on the surface of a neutron star, the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic forces conspire to give you phases of matter you wouldn’t be able to predict if you had just looked at those forces operating on small collections of neutrons and protons.”

Now, it turns out that these pasta-like structures look a lot like the structures inside biological cells, even though they are vastly different.

This odd similarity was first discovered in 2014, when Huber was studying the unique shapes on our endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – the little organelle in our cells that makes proteins and lipids.

At first, Huber thought that these structures on the ER – which he called “parking garages”, or more formally, Terasaki ramps – were something that only happened inside soft matter.

But the he saw Horowitz’s models of neutron stars, and was surprised to find that the structures of the ER looked a heck of a lot like the structures inside neutron stars.

“I called Chuck [Horowitz] and asked if he was aware that we had seen these structures in cells and had come up with a model for them,” Huber said. “It was news to him, so I realised then that there could be some fruitful interaction.”

You can see the ER structures (left) compared to the neutron stars (right) below:

NeutronStars

The discovery brought both of the scientists together to compare and contrast the differences between the structures, such as the conditions required for them to form.

Normally, matter is characterised by a phase – sometimes called its state – such as gas, solid, liquid Different phases are usually influenced by a plethora of various conditions, like how hot the matter is, how much pressure it’s under, and how dense it is.

These factors change wildly between soft matter (the stuff inside cells) and neutron stars (nuclear matter). After all, neutron stars form after supernovae explosions, and cells form within living things. With that in mind, it’s quite easy to see that the two things are very different.

“For neutron stars, the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force create what is fundamentally a quantum mechanical problem,” Huber said.

“In the interior of cells, the forces that hold together membranes are fundamentally entropic and have to do with the minimisation of the overall free energy of the system. At first glance, these couldn’t be more different.”

While the similarity is cool, and makes us feel connected to the cosmos in a strange way, the differences signify the importance of the discovery, because they hint that two very different things – cells and neutron stars – might be guided by the same geometric rules that we’re only just beginning to understand.

It will take further research to really figure out what’s going on here, but it’s a starting point that could help us understand something fundamental about how matter is structured, and we’re excited to see where that leads.

Tidal evolution of the Moon from a high-obliquity, high-angular-momentum Earth.

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In the giant-impact hypothesis for lunar origin, the Moon accreted from an equatorial circum-terrestrial disk; however, the current lunar orbital inclination of five degrees requires a subsequent dynamical process that is still unclear1, 2, 3. In addition, the giant-impact theory has been challenged by the Moon’s unexpectedly Earth-like isotopic composition4, 5. Here we show that tidal dissipation due to lunar obliquity was an important effect during the Moon’s tidal evolution, and the lunar inclination in the past must have been very large, defying theoretical explanations. We present a tidal evolution model starting with the Moon in an equatorial orbit around an initially fast-spinning, high-obliquity Earth, which is a probable outcome of giant impacts. Using numerical modelling, we show that the solar perturbations on the Moon’s orbit naturally induce a large lunar inclination and remove angular momentum from the Earth–Moon system. Our tidal evolution model supports recent high-angular-momentum, giant-impact scenarios to explain the Moon’s isotopic composition6, 7, 8 and provides a new pathway to reach Earth’s climatically favourable low obliquity.

Astronomer Says Spiritual Phenomena Exist in Other Dimensions

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Consciousness

In Beyond Science, Epoch Times explores research and accounts related to phenomena and theories that challenge our current knowledge. We delve into ideas that stimulate the imagination and open up new possibilities. Share your thoughts with us on these sometimes controversial topics in the comments section below.

Astronomer and mathematician Bernard Carr theorizes that many of the phenomena we experience but cannot explain within the physical laws of this dimension actually occur in other dimensions.

Bernard Carr
Bernard Carr

Albert Einstein stated that there are at least four dimensions. The fourth dimension is time, or spacetime, since Einstein said space and time cannot be separated. In modern physics, theories about the existence of up to 11 dimensions and the possibility of more have gained traction.

Carr, a professor of mathematics and astronomy at Queen Mary University of London, says our consciousness interacts with another dimension. Furthermore, the multi-dimensional universe he envisions has a hierarchical structure. We are at the lowest-level dimension.

“The model resolves well-known philosophical problems concerning the relationship between matter and mind, elucidates the nature of time, and provides an ontological framework for the interpretation of phenomena such as apparitions, OBEs [out-of-body experiences], NDEs [near-death-experiences], and dreams,” he wrote in a conference abstract.

Carr reasons that our physical sensors only show us a 3-dimensional universe, though there are actually at least four dimensions. What exists in the higher dimensions are entities we cannot touch with our physical sensors. He said that such entities must still have a type of space to exist in.

“The only non-physical entities in the universe of which we have any experience are mental ones, and … the existence of paranormal phenomena suggests that mental entities have to exist in some sort of space,” Carr wrote.

The other-dimensional space we enter in dreams overlaps with the space where memory exists. Carr says telepathy signals a communal mental space and clairvoyance also contains a physical space. “Non-physical percepts have attributes of externality,” he wrote in his book “Matter, Mind, and Higher Dimensions.”

He builds on previous theories, including the Kaluza–Klein theory, which unifies the fundamental forces of gravitation and electromagnetism. The Kaluza–Klein theory also envisions a 5-dimensional space.

In “M-theory,” there are 11 dimensions. In superstring theory, there are 10. Carr understands this as a 4-dimensional “external” space—meaning these are the four dimensions in Einstein’s relativity theory—and a 6- or 7-dimensional “internal” space—meaning these dimensions relate to psychic and other “intangible” phenomena.

Scientists have identified a part of the brain responsible for the placebo effect.

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It’s not all in your head.

 

Scientists think they’ve located a region of the brain that’s linked to the placebo effect – a psychological phenomenon where patients feel better because they think they’ve been given real drugs, when in fact all they’ve been given is sugar pills.

The findings could not only help researchers identify those who are more likely to experience a placebo effect – it could also lead to more personalised treatments for those suffering from chronic pain, giving scientists a new way to tailor drugs to particular brain types.

Working with 98 volunteers with chronic knee osteoarthritis, the team used a customised functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique to identify a specific region in the mid-frontal gyrus part of the brain that could be linked to the placebo effect.

From the original pool of volunteers, they then randomly selected 39, and used this technique to try and identify those who responded well to placebo treatments. They were correct 95 percent of the time.

That’s important, because being able to accurately identify those who respond well to placebos before a clinical trial gets underway would make a big difference in clinical trials.

Not only would it allow researchers to eliminate volunteers who might be particularly affected by placebos in a clinical trial, it could also help them get more accurate readings on the effectiveness of drugs by accounting for an individual’s placebo effect.

“Given the enormous societal toll of chronic pain, being able to predict placebo responders in a chronic pain population could both help the design of personalised medicine and enhance the success of clinical trials,” said team member, Marwan Baliki, from Northwestern University.

In the past, doctors have had to use a trial and error method for choosing drugs to target chronic pain, but this research could help them select treatments that are much more personalised, based on a patient’s fMRI scans.

“The new technology will allow physicians to see what part of the brain is activated during an individual’s pain, and choose the specific drug to target this spot,” said one of the researchers, A. Vania Apkarian.

“It also will provide more evidence-based measurements. Physicians will be able to measure how the patient’s pain region is affected by the drug.”

To be clear, the sample size in this study is very small, so it’s going to take a much larger pool of volunteers to demonstrate if the technique works as well as it appeared to in these experiments. But the researchers think there’s enough evidence here to spark further investigation.

The team also says that because their study looked at long-term pain issues, rather than isolated pain experiments as most other placebo effect studies have, it should be more useful in putting together treatments in the future.

“These results provide some evidence for clinical placebo being predetermined by brain biology, and show that brain imaging may also identify a placebo-corrected prediction of response to active treatment,” they write in PLOS Biology.

Physicists demonstrate existence of ‘unlikely’ new subatomic structure.

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Researchers have demonstrated the existence of a tetraneutron, a subatomic structure once thought unlikely to exist.
James Vary, right, and coauthor Andrey Shirokov with an illustration of a tetraneutron.

Iowa State University researchers have helped demonstrate the existence of a subatomic structure once thought unlikely to exist.

James Vary, a professor of physics and astronomy, and Andrey Shirokov, a visiting scientist, together with an international team, used sophisticated supercomputer simulations to show the quasi-stable existence of a tetraneutron, a structure comprised of four neutrons (subatomic particles with no charge).

The new finding was published in Physical Review Letters, a publication of the American Physical Society, on October 28.

On their own, neutrons are very unstable and will convert into protons — positively charged subatomic particles — after ten minutes. Groups of two or three neutrons do not form a stable structure, but the new simulations in this research demonstrate that four neutrons together can form a resonance, a structure stable for a period of time before decaying.

For the tetraneutron, this lifetime is only 5×10^(-22) seconds (a tiny fraction of a billionth of a nanosecond). Though this time seems very short, it is long enough to study, and provides a new avenue for exploring the strong forces between neutrons.

“This opens up a whole new line of research,” Vary said. “Studying the tetraneutron will help us understand interneutron forces including previously unexplored features of the unstable two-neutron and three-neutron systems.”

The advanced simulations demonstrating the tetraneutron corroborate the first observational evidence of the tetraneutron earlier this year in an experiment performed at the RIKEN Radioactive Ion Beam Factory (RIBF), in Saitama, Japan. The tetraneutron structure has been sought for 40 years with little evidence supporting its existence, until now. The properties predicted by the calculations in the simulations were consistent with the observed properties from the experiment in Japan.

The research in Japan used a beam of Helium-8, Helium with 4 extra neutrons, colliding with a regular Helium-4 atom. The collision breaks up the Helium-8 into another Helium-4 and a tetraneutron in its brief resonance state, before it, too, breaks apart, forming four lone neutrons. “We know that additional experiments with state-of-the-art facilities are in preparation with the goal to get precise characteristics of the tetraneutron,” Vary said. “We are providing our state-of-the-art predictions to help guide these experiments.”

The existence of the tetraneutron, once confirmed and refined, will add an interesting new entry and gap to the chart of nuclides, a graph representing all known nuclei and their isotopes, or nuclei with a different number of neutrons. Similar to the periodic table, which organizes the chemical behavior of elements, the nuclide chart represents the radioactive behavior of elements and their isotopes. While most nuclei add or subtract neutrons one at a time, this research shows that a neutron itself will have a gap between a single neutron and a tetraneutron.

The only other known neutron structure is a neutron star, small but dense stars thought to be made almost entirely of neutrons. These stars may be only about seven miles in radius but have a mass similar to that of our sun. Neutron stars have neutrons on the order 10^57. Further research may explore if there are other numbers of neutrons that form a stable resonance along the path to reaching the size of a neutron star.

Here’s How to Supercharge Your Dopamine Levels to Never Feel Sad, Stressed or Depressed Again

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Our brain releases a neurotransmitter, dopamine, which is crucial for numerous essential bodily functions. Dopamine is great for the following body functions: Regulating movement, Controlling the center of pleasure and reward in the brain, Improving the cognitive functions (knowledge, attention, memory, decision-making, evaluation, problem solving), Regulating the secretion of prolactin, and many others.

Since it is extremely important for our well-being and happiness, the reduced levels of dopamine lead to various health issues, such as depression, sadness, negativity and various emotional troubles.

Fortunately, there are 10 effective ways to raise the dopamine levels in the body, without using medications:

Exercise

The exercise of every kind raises the levels of dopamine, serotonin, and endorphin. Regular exercise provides happiness, strengthens the body, reduces stress.

Avoid Addictions

Addiction to alcohol, drugs, gambling, sex, and even shopping, provide an instant pleasure, but it is not a permanent solution. Additions only temporarily satisfy our needs.

Moreover, addictions alter our lifestyle in favor of the source of the addiction, and it is a wicked cycle. Therefore, you should try and lower the risk of developing addictions, enjoy life, and find things that provide deeper calmness and happiness. Also, it is of great importance to work a job you enjoy.

Detoxification

Make sure you regularly detoxify your system, as the accumulation of toxins and bacteria in the body prevents the dopamine production and weakens the immunity.

Increase Tyrosine

Tyrosine is one of the 22 essential amino acids used for the creation of proteins. It is actually the most important chemical for the dopamine production of dopamine.

Besides dopamine, it also has the potential to elevate norepinephrine levels. In order to raise its levels in the body, you should consume green tea, watermelon, almonds, bananas, avocados, and dark chocolate.

Music

Dopamine levels are also increased through listening to music, even though it may be short-term. Therefore, use music as a common way to raise dopamine levels.

Organize your life

The levels of dopamine are raised in the case of organized small daily tasks, even though they are hard at times. You should write your tasks down on a piece of paper, and check them off. In this way, you will be satisfied as you note that you finish them one by one.

The Principles of Self-Management state that if a task represents a change of 25% (or bigger change) in the routine, you will feel unable to finish it, and often ends up with a self-sabotage or giving up. Y

et, if the task changes 10% of your routine, you will succeed to complete it, as you will believe it is small. Therefore, balance tasks to be 10 and 25% of new behaviors, in order to try new and challenging things, but still not too difficult to complete.

Creativity

The levels of dopamine in the brain are also elevated with a creative activity. This will also keep you focused. You do not need to become a world-known artist but try dancing, singing, writing, sculpturing, painting, drawing, cooking, knitting, making crafts, and auto repair, and you will feel much better right away.

Get a Streak Going

In this sense, “streak” will mean a visual reminder of the number of times in a row you do something. This is similar to organizing the tasks, and accomplishing them. This will raise the levels of dopamine, and make you happier and satisfied. You should use a calendar, written your goals, and plan when to complete them. As soon as you finish the task, mark it off on your calendar. Yet, the drawback of the ‘streak’ is routine, so you should find a way to enhance the performance.

Supplementation

Dopamine levels can also be raised through supplementation, such as:

Curcumin, the active ingredient in turmeric, effectively increases dopamine in the brain.

Ginkgo Biloba has a potential to raise dopamine levels as well.

Acetyl-l-tyrosine is a building block of dopamine, so a healthy dose of it supports the production of dopamine in the brain.

L-theanine increases numerous neurotransmitters in the brain, including dopamine. Green tea is a rich source of l-theanine.

Meditation

Meditation raises the levels of dopamine in a different way that cardio exercises. It improves your mood, creates mental energy, and relaxes the mind. Meditation is an efficient way to reduce stress on a daily basis.